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The air that surrounds us consists of molecules in gaseous form, and although we breathe these molecules in and out and use them to fill balloons and fly kites, we can’t see them.  Some of the many types of molecules that make up air are gaseous water molecules.  When warm air is rapidly cooled, the water molecules lose energy and slow down.  Some of the water molecules slow down sufficiently to condense around tiny dirt particles in the air, much like the “sweat” that condenses on a soda can in the summer.  This produces tiny droplets of liquid water suspended in the air.  This visible cloud of liquid water is fog, and this is what inspires our poems and cinematic art.  If the air temperature rises or the humidity level falls, the tiny liquid drops of water in the air become gaseous, and the fog disappears. 

Fog occurs when warm, humid air is cooled.  When does this happen?  One scenario is at the end of the day, when the ground cools as it radiates heat absorbed through the day.  If the cushion of air close to the ground is humid, as it cools, the water vapor will slow and condense, producing “radiation” fog. 

“Advection” fog forms when warm and cold air currents flow past each other.  This happens at the Gulf coast when northern air currents as well as cold water from rivers work together to cool the humid Gulf coastal waters.  

“Valley” fog forms along mountain slopes as air cools as it rises.  The gaseous water slows and condenses, and the steep incline prevents the dense air from escaping. 

Fog serves as a source of fresh water for people such as the Ecuadorian Galte community, who live at altitudes over 11,000 feet high up in the Andes Mountains.  In 2014, engineers installed fog catchers, which are giant screens that catch water droplets as fog rolls in.  The water collects on the mesh and drips into reservoirs below the screens.  For every square yard of fog-catching screen, the Galte people collect up to 5 gallons of water, which they use to irrigate corn.

The next time you find yourself walking or driving through a cloud of fog, think about the amazing mix of air temperature and humidity that is happening at that moment to produce a delicate meteorological display, so quiet and beautiful.  And keep an eye out for Mr. Darcy!

Citation:  CARRERA-VILLACRÉS, David & Robalino, Iveth & Rodriguez Espinosa, Fabian & Sandoval Erazo, Washington & Hidalgo, Deysi & Toulkeridis, Theofilos. (2017). An Innovative Fog Catcher System Applied in the Andean Communities of Ecuador. Transactions of the ASABE. 60. 1917-1923. 10.13031/trans.12368.

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On April 10, 1815, Mount Tambora erupted in Indonesia, sending 12 cubic miles of rock and ash into the air and over the land, taking the lives of 10,000 villagers instantly.  The following year became known as “the year with no summer” as the ash traveled across the globe, affecting far-flung regions.  In Minnesota that year, there was snow in July!  All over the world the ash-darkened skies caused low sunlight levels, which led to low crop yields and famine.

Almost a hundred years later, on May 8, 1902, Mount Pelée erupted on the island of Martinique in the West Indies.  After a month of earthquakes and small eruptions that drove a host of venomous snakes and centipedes into nearby towns, a massive blast of hot gases and rock (over 500°F) wiped out the surrounding town, even burning up ships in the harbor.  The single survivor was a murderer serving his sentence in a concrete jail cell, which ultimately saved his life.  His notoriety led to a side show stint in the Ringling Bros. circus!

This volcano was spectacular but not deadly:  On February 20, 1943, a farmer in west-central Mexico was clearing his corn field when he stumbled across a small hill that looked like it had cracked open.  As he watched, the earth rumbled and the hill grew to tower over him.  Over the next 24 hours, the tower threw ash and molten rock into the air and grew 20 stories high.  The new volcano grew slowly but steadily, burying the farmer’s corn field in ash and lava, which is magma that has erupted to the surface.  Over four months, lava flowed slowly from the growing cone, creeping toward the town of San Juan.  All the inhabitants safely evacuated the town, which was eventually blanketed by lava and covered by ash layers, up to 50 feet thick in some places.  After ten years, the volcano quieted and has been inactive ever since.

On the flip side, this deadly volcano never actually erupted:  In the west African nation of Cameroon, Lake Nyos sits in a caldera, which is a collapsed mouth of a volcano.  As carbon dioxide bubbled out of the volcano into the lake, the deeper waters became saturated with the gas.  On the evening of August 26, 1986, the ground beneath the lake rumbled, suddenly overturning the lake water and releasing a massive amount of carbon dioxide into the air.  The dense gas sank to the lake surface and formed a river of dense gas flowing down the mountain.  As it flowed through the villages at the base of the mountain, the gas suffocated livestock, birds, and people.  1700 villagers lost their lives.  To prevent another disaster, pumps were installed in the lake to draw up the deepest water and blast it into the air, dispersing the dissolved carbon dioxide into the atmosphere and preventing it from accumulating deep in the lake.

Closer to home, on May 18, 1980, Mount St. Helens in Washington erupted, beginning with a landslide of mud and rock that would have filled a million Olympic-sized swimming pools, and continuing with eruptions that lasted 9 hours.  Even though volcanologists had warned of possible explosive eruptions, not everyone evacuated far enough from the mountain.  57 people died, and nearly half of those bodies were buried in ash and never recovered.  Thousands of animals died and 10 million trees were destroyed.  After two days, volcanic activity decreased, and other than occasional small earthquakes, the volcano remains quiet.

Along with Mount St. Helens, The United States has over 160 potentially active volcanoes.  Most of these are in Alaska and along the west coast and are part of the “Ring of Fire”, which is a circle of volcanoes that border the Pacific Ocean.  Yellowstone and Hawaiian volcanoes form due to hot spots within the mantle of the earth.  Hawaii’s Mount Kilauea has been erupting on and off for nearly 40 years, and in the summer of 2018, its eruptions sent lava across 12.5 square miles and destroyed 700 homes.  The lava flow was slow enough for all residents to evacuate, and local businesses offered tours to see creeping lava by land, air, and sea.   Yellowstone National Park in Wyoming sits in a giant caldera.  As molten rock, liquids, and gases expand and contract just below the surface, the entire park “breathes”, bulging up several inches and descending back down from year to year.  In some areas of the park, this geologic activity breaks through the surface in the form of geysers and hot springs, which are popular tourist attractions.

Despite their formidable destructive power, volcanoes are a vital part of the global ecosystem.  As lava cools, it forms new land, which plants, animals, and people inhabit.  Ash forms nutrient-rich soils that hold water well. Volcanic rock (ex. granite and gabbro) is used in construction, and mineral deposits (ex. aluminum and nickel) are used in manufacturing.  Volcanology is a growing and exciting field.  As we continue to study volcanoes, they will remain one of nature’s most spectacular phenomena, but become much less detrimental to human life.    

Explore volcanoes:

• Look up https://www.usgs.gov/natural-hazards/volcano-hazards/field-guides to see the best places to visit!
• Build your own volcano model, using paper maché or dough.  With an adult’s help, create “lava” in two different ways: (1) Put about a ¼ cup of baking soda into the mouth of your volcano, and then pour in a ½ cup of white vinegar mixed with red food coloring.  (2) Pour in a ½ cup of warm water mixed with some dish soap, and then add a piece of dry ice.
• And don’t forget this classic game:  Yell “The floor is lava!” and count down from five.  By the time you reach zero, everyone else must be off the floor.  Have a magma-nificent time! 

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Holly

Hollies are one of the many native plants you can see in Alabama this time of year and with over 400 unique species you are bound to see some on the shortest of winter walks. With their classic dark green leaves and eye-catching red berries, hollies are a staple greenery of the holiday season.

Euphorbia cyathophora Murray

Practically everyone is familiar with the typical poinsettia that shows off its brilliant red bloom when winter rolls around. But I recently discovered Euphorbia cyathophora Murray, or more commonly known as Wild Poinsettia or Painted Poinsettia. These Alabama native plants have smaller leaves but still adorn those bright red colors we enjoy this time of year! The milky sap of these plants has been known to cause skin irritations and gastrointestinal issues if ingested so be sure to keep your distance and only enjoy them with your eyes.

Oak Mistletoe

Ah, Mistletoe – such a beautiful, romantic reminder of the holidays. That is, only if the term “obligate hemiparasite” gives you that warm, fuzzy feeling. This lovely title comes from its tendency to infest many landscape trees. “Obligate” refers to the need for the mistletoe to have a host tree to grow on as it does not grow in the earth. “Hemiparasite” means the plant does not fully rely on the host to survive as other true parasites do. Mistletoe has rootlike structures known as haustoria that grow into the tree’s sapwood and absorb the tree’s water, nutrients, and sugars directly from the sap stream. Don’t let the plants true nature give you the winter blues – in many parts of the world Mistletoe is responsible for many medicinal treatments with anxiety, depression and even certain types of cancers.

Fraser Fir

The classic, most commonly used tree for Christmas is the Fraser Fir. It is a small evergreen coniferous tree that typically grows anywhere from thirty to fifty feet tall. It is currently listed as endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. Due to their native position on the Appalachian Mountains, they are susceptible to destruction by windfall and fire. However, an invasive insect known as the Balsam Woolly Adelgid has caused far more damage to these well-known trees. Across the world we have been using firs, pines and spruces since the 16^th century to decorate our homes for the holidays. But to this day the Fraser Fir is the most iconic tree chosen for the Christmas season.

We hope this December you find a moment to enjoy some wonderful winter plant life and remember the reasons you enjoy this beautiful holiday season!

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T-shirt

Look at the label!  Cotton is plant product, and plants convert carbon dioxide from the atmosphere into plant tissue.  Polyester and acrylic are made from hydrocarbons extracted from the ground.

Wooden toothpick

Wood, like cotton, is a plant product, containing carbon that used to be carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

Fizzy drink

Carbonated beverages contain dissolved carbon dioxide, which makes them fizzy.

Glass of water

Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere diffuses into water, not enough to make it fizzy, but enough to affect animals and plants that live in it.

Plastic toothbrush

Plastic, like polyester, is made from petroleum. Petroleum is used to make thousands of products, from car tires to crayons.

Piece of toast

Bread is made from wheat flour, and wheat is a plant, containing carbon from the atmosphere.

Flower

Plants use carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to produce the cellulose and pigments that make up flowers.

Look in the mirror

Our bodies are composed of trillions of cells formed from the carbon that we consume in our food.

Look around you… what objects and what living things do you see?  It is all most likely rich in carbon.  Carbon is part of our bodies, part of plants and animals, and part of so many things that we use every day!

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Each tree has its own special pigment but as plants reside in their dormant stage during the spring and summer the colors are muted by the green that is produced by chlorophyll. As Fall approaches, the leaves can show their true colors in a beautiful display of reds, orange and yellow.

Plants produce a chemical called chlorophyll to make their own food (photosynthesis). They must have sunlight to produce chlorophyll. As the days grow shorter, the plants make less and less of this chemical, which is what gives leaves their green colors.

Trees such as aspen, birch and some oaks are put off a brilliant yellow color each fall with the help of a chemical called Xanthophyll. The Chestnut Oak is a beautiful example here in the Southeast.

The Southern Sugar Maple is well known here in the southeast for its original display of oranges each Autumn. Carotenes are what provide this wonderful display. As you might have guessed, it is also what gives carrots their color.

With fall fast approaching, The Red Maple will be seen in Alabama sporting a bright red flickering of leaves. Anthocyanins in these red trees have to be made each autumn season. The reason is unclear, but possible causes are that the red pigment absorbs more light or that it attracts more birds to disperse more seeds. One thing is clear, it provides an amazing visual display each year

Few trees produce a naturally brown pigment in the fall but here we have the English Oaks. Tannins are ever-present in these leaves but are more visible when the chlorophyll is limited.

The Ultimate Preppers

Deciduous trees will begin preparing for the fall and winter months as early as Spring. There is an area at the base of the leaf near the stem called the abscission zone (also known as the separation zone). The fiberless area will weaken as the reduction of chlorophyll occurs. This allows the leaf to be easily removed with an autumn breeze or a brief rain causing minimal damage to the intricate, slender branches of each limb.

Autumn Scavenger Hunt

Pinecone

Branch

Acorn

Mushroom

Leaf

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This is DJ.  He is a common chuckwalla, one of our education animal ambassadors here at the Cook Museum of Natural Science.  His job is to help guests learn about lizards!  He participates in classes, Live Animal Presentations, birthday parties, Fun Days, and other events we host here at the museum.

DJ is generally very easy going and doesn’t mind the attention.  He likes to be up high, so when I take him out of his enclosure he sometimes wants to run to the top of my head! He likes warm soaks when he is shedding and hangs out on his hammock in his enclosure.  One of his favorite treats is strawberries!

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Our planet consists of almost 100 different elements.  Everything that makes up our planet is made of a combination of these elements.  For example, our bodies are made mostly of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur.  Water is made of hydrogen and oxygen.  Some materials are solids, some are liquids, and some are gases, but all materials are made of elements.

The air we breathe is a mixture of gases.  The gas that makes up most of the air we breathe is… NOT oxygen!  Nitrogen makes up about 78% of the Earth’s atmosphere.  Breathing an atmosphere of pure oxygen would damage the delicate tissues and blood vessels in our lungs, so it’s a good thing that most of our atmosphere is nitrogen.  Bacteria convert nitrogen gas into a dissolved form of nitrogen that plants can take up through their roots.  When we eat plants, we get nitrogen nutrition!

Oxygen makes up about 21% of the air we breathe.  There is a perfect amount of oxygen in the atmosphere: enough for our lungs to absorb into our blood, but not enough to damage our tissues.  The trillions of cells in our bodies use oxygen to break down molecules absorbed from the food we eat.  This is what fuels all our activity, from playing soccer to thinking out math problems!

Air contains smaller amounts of many other gases. Argon makes up less than 1% of the atmosphere and is used in making lightbulbs.  Carbon dioxide makes up 0.04% of the atmosphere, but it’s enough carbon dioxide for all Earth’s plants to make the food they need.  Helium is used to fill balloons and blimps.  Neon is used in lighting and lasers. 

If there is so much good stuff in the air we breathe, why can’t we see it?  Our eyes sense certain wavelengths of light that hit objects and reflect back to our eyes.  The molecules of gas in the atmosphere are so small and spaced so far apart that most light waves pass right by them and don’t reflect back to our eyes.  The light waves that do hit gas molecules are too few for us to perceive, unless we look at a whole lot of them at the same time.  For example, the sky looks blue because the atmosphere scatters sunlight and reflects blue light back to our eyes. 

So, take another deep breath and let it out slowly, and appreciate the amazing air we breathe!

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Hiking is quickly becoming one of the most popular American pastimes, coming in at number 4 for the most popular outdoor activity in the U.S., (after running, fishing and biking) according to The Outdoor Foundation’s 2018 Outdoor Participation Report. In addition to improving your cardiovascular health, hiking can also be an excellent workout routine. According to Harvard Health, “Taking a hike on the slightly uneven surface of a trail also provides a natural way to engage the core muscles in your torso and to hone your balance skills”. Logging your physical activity with a smartwatch or fitness tracking app is a great way to monitor your physical activity while hiking.

If you are feeling overwhelmed by your day-to-day struggles, hiking can even improve your mental health! Any type of physical activity allows the release of endorphins which interact with the receptors of the brain and trigger that feel-good feeling which is a similar response to that of a patient that has received a dose of morphine. But hiking outside, in nature, enjoying the natural world around us has been proven to improve our overall mood and clarity than simply walking on a treadmill indoors.

If you have kids, try making a simple scavenger hunt for them to follow along with on the trail! Insects, birds, leaves, water, a seed or nut are some basic examples of what I like to include on our family scavenger hunts. Above all else, remember to have fun! We are stewards of this beautiful planet and by taking nothing and leaving with memories we can lead happier, healthier lives!

Sources:

• Outdoor Industry Association – 2018 Outdoor Participation Report
• Harvard Medical School – Harvard Health Publishing
• American Hiking Society
• WebMD – Exercise and Depression

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A few weeks ago, the Education Team at the Cook Museum went for a hike at Wheeler National Wildlife Refuge in Decatur, AL. During this walk, we noticed several species of wildlife, including a water snake, great white egrets, blue herons and wild roses. However, the one I thought stood out the most was this guy, a large common snapping turtle.

He appeared to be older and just out to bask in the sun.  He kept us is his line of sight the whole time we were observing him. He would slowly move his head and then slowly move his body.  We moved on after a few minutes and he slowly slithered back into the water.

Common Snapping Turtle Fun Facts

• Common Snapping Turtle’s scientific name is Chelydra serpentina. Chelydra is a Greek word that means “tortoise” and serpentina is derived from the Latin word serpentis, which means “snake”.  This word refers to its long tail.
• They have powerful jaws and have an average bite force of 209 N. They may not have the same force that you do when you bite with your molars (1300 N) but they have enough force to do some real damage.
• The Common Snapping turtle is an aquatic turtle that prefers slow-moving, shallow bodies of water with muddy bottoms, which give them places to hide.
• They are omnivores, meaning they eat plants and animals.  Their diet consists of plants, insects, worms, snakes, fish and other small animals.
• You can find the Common Snapping Turtle all the way from southeastern Canada to the southern tip of the Florida panhandle.

So, while you are out and enjoying nature this summer, keep your eye out for fascinating animals. Take photographs, observe them in their natural habitat, look them up online and in books and keep exploring and learning!

References

Virginia Herpetological Society, accessed July 1, 2020, <https://www.virginiaherpetologicalsociety.com/reptiles/turtles/eastern-snapping-turtle/eastern_snapping_turtle.php>

North Carolina Wildlife Resource Commission, accessed July 1, 2020, <https://www.ncwildlife.org/Portals/0/Learning/documents/Profiles/Reptile/Common-Snapping-Turtle-Profile.pdf>

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Experiment 1: Breakdown of the Center of Mass

To study the science of balance, we need to focus on the center of mass. Mass is the assessment of how much matter something has. Matter makes up everything. Literally, everything. And the center of mass is the point in the object where the mass distributed around that point equals zero.

For the most part the center of gravity and the center of mass are exactly the same – the only time that you would see the center of gravity and center of mass expressed differently is if the object is so large that Earth’s gravity is not a constant force acting on the object – such as our Moon.

Balance the Ruler! Rulers are an easy object to balance on one of your fingers because it is instinctive to find the center of mass – which would be the middle of the ruler. Have your child see if they can locate the center of mass / center of gravity on the ruler.

Balance the Ruler: Part 2! Yay! They did it! Now, experiment with finding the center of mass with an object that has unequal weights on both sides by adding some clay to one side of the ruler. See if your child can deduce where the center of mass / center of gravity is on the ruler when the clay has been added – is the center of mass farther away from the clay side or closer?

Balancing Rocks! Now that your child understands the concept of center of mass let them experiment with balancing rocks! This is a common art form that takes a lot of skill and knowledge of how objects are weighted. Let your child find rocks from the backyard or driveway and work with them on experimenting with balancing the rocks on top of each other. Remember that creating these sculptures is perfectly fine in your yard, but when you are out in nature be sure to leave the rocks right where they are! All sorts of neat animals call the undersides of rocks home, so we want to protect their habitats by letting nature just be.

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